Flights between Iran and Saudi Arabia, which had been suspended for nearly nine years, have officially resumed with the reinstatement of the Mashhad-Dammam route.

According to the Iranian Students News Agency (ISNA), the first passenger plane from Mashhad landed at King Fahd International Airport (commonly known as Dammam International Airport) in Saudi Arabia. As part of the agreement between the two nations, this route will operate twice weekly, marking a significant step in restoring ties.

Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia were severed on January 3, 2016, following a series of escalating events:

On January 2, 2016, Saudi Arabia executed 47 individuals, including prominent Shia cleric Nimr al-Nimr, on charges of “terrorism.”

The executions provoked widespread anger in Iran, leading to protests. Demonstrators in Tehran and Mashhad attacked and set fire to the Saudi embassy and consulate buildings.

In response, Saudi Arabia formally cut off diplomatic relations with Iran the following day.

Compounding these tensions, the Yemen crisis, which began in March 2015, further strained relations. The two nations found themselves on opposing sides of the conflict, deepening the rift.

On March 10, 2023, Iran and Saudi Arabia reached a groundbreaking agreement to normalize relations. Facilitated by diplomatic initiatives from Iraq and China, the agreement includes reopening embassies in both countries, resuming direct flights, and streamlining the visa process to encourage travel and exchanges.

The attacks of the terrorist organizations led by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), which captured the rest of Idlib, all of Aleppo and the northern countryside of Hama in Syria, were followed by the attacks of the Turkish-backed FSA in Tal Rifaat, the U.S.-backed FSA in al-Bukamal and the YPG in Deir ez-Zor. The Syrian army looks disorganized in the attacks, which ‘coincided’ with a period when Russia and Iran, which support the Syrian government, were busy with their own agendas. The Syrian army’s unopposed retreat from Aleppo could have profound implications for Syria’s political future.

So which organizations are fighting in Syria, where and against whom? Which powers are supporting them and why?

1- Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS): Idlib-Aleppo-Hama

Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) is the leading terrorist organization targeting the Syrian army in the battlefields of Aleppo, Idlib and Hama.

The Fateh al-Mubin Operations Room, formed with the participation of HTS and other organizations, launched an attack against the Syrian army on 27 November under the name of “Operation Deterring Aggression”. The groups took control of Aleppo, 310 kilometers from the Syrian capital Damascus, and captured some small settlements towards Hama province. According to AA, the groups also took control of the settlements of Jalime, Alzeka, Beridej, Jubbeyin, Tal Meleh, Kirkat, Mughayyir and Mabtan in Hama, and the villages of Tuwayne, Huwayz, Sheria and Bab Taka in the Gab Plain.

A ‘commander’ from Fateh al-Mubin’s operations room, who requested anonymity, told Majalla that in addition to HTS, Jaysh al-Izzah and Jaysh al-Nasr, as well as some of the groups under the umbrella of the Turkish-backed FSA, such as the Nour al-Din Zengi Movement, the National Liberation Front and the Joint Force, are involved in attacks in the area.

Around 40,000 opposition fighters are involved in attacks against the Syrian army in Aleppo, Idlib and Hama. The commander said that the groups have about 80,000 fighters in reserve, all of whom have received military training in various forms of warfare and conflict, how to deal with circumstances, how to use weapons and how to confront regime forces and their allies.

HTS, formerly al-Nusra, was formed under the leadership of Abu Mohammed Golani, who was sent to Syria in 2011 by the Islamic State of Iraq (ISIS), the Iraqi branch of al-Qaeda led by Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi.

When Golani, the leader of al-Nusra, which had grown rapidly by exploiting the chaos in Syria, and Baghdadi fell out, Baghdadi announced the dissolution of al-Nusra in 2013. In the same statement, Baghdadi announced the creation of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and declared that ISIL was expanding into Syria.

Meanwhile, al-Nusra declared its allegiance to al-Qaeda, but this did not prevent ISIS from seizing the vast majority of al-Nusra’s human, ammunition, and financial resources in Syria. The crisis between the two organizations also went to al-Qaeda’s central arbitration center, but the crisis could not be resolved.

Because of its links to al-Qaeda, al-Nusra was quickly placed on terrorist lists by various countries. Turkey added it to its list of terrorist organizations in 2014. From 2014, as ISIS spread rapidly across Syria, al-Nusra and other groups were trapped in the Idlib region.

Russia’s intervention in Syria and the Syrian army’s rapid operations to ensure territorial integrity led al-Nusra to unite with other groups. To this end, it announced that it had severed its ties with al-Qaeda and adopted the name Jabhat Fateh al-Sham Front (JFC).

Of course, the ‘break’ with al-Qaeda was only superficial. For al-Nusra’s move came immediately after al-Qaeda’s leadership advised it to ‘do whatever is necessary for the benefit of the jihad in Damascus and to unite with other organizations’. However, even the name changes only resulted in the unification of the SFC with a few small groups.

In 2017, HTS was formed under the military leadership of Golani, along with a few other groups such as the Nureddin Zengi Movement, Liwa al-Haq and others. HTS declared its goal to be “the rule of Sharia and the rejection of secularism”.

In January 2017, a ceasefire was declared in Idlib as part of Astana, excluding ISIS and al-Nusra. However, HTS took advantage of the ceasefire to engage in a confrontation with Ahrar al-Sham, the other main group in Idlib, in the summer of 2017, and suffered a major defeat. Since then, HTS has rapidly expanded and recruited other organizations, either by force or voluntarily, and by the end of 2019 it controlled 95% of Idlib. With around 30,000 fighters, it is the most effective armed force in the region.

2- Turkey-backed FSA (SNA): Northern and Northern countryside of Aleppo

The Turkish-controlled FSA (Syrian National Army – SNA), the most ideologically mixed front organization, is the military organization of the Coalition of Syrian Opposition and Revolutionary Forces (SMDK). They also have a government called the ‘Syrian Interim Government’.

There are dozens of organizations within the SNA, such as Faylaq al-Sham, Jaish al-Ahrar, Jaish al-Nasr, Ahrar al-Sham, Nour al-Din Zengi. Many of these organization are known to have received military and financial support from the CIA-controlled Military Operations Coordination Room and Gulf states in the past.

While some of the SNA-affiliated organizations took part in the HTS-led Aleppo offensive, some of them captured the Tal Rifaat district center as part of Operation Dawn of Freedom launched against the PKK/YPG.

According to Majalla, the day after the HTS launched its offensive, Turkey summoned the SNA factions in its area of influence in northern Aleppo for a secret emergency meeting. One of the SNA commanders said that during the meeting an agreement was reached with the Turkish side to expel the YPG from the areas it controls in the neighborhoods of Ashrafiya and Sheikh Maqsoud in northern Aleppo, Tal Rifaat and Manbij in the northern countryside of Aleppo, in parallel with the HTS operation.

3- PKK/YPG: East of the Euphrates in Deir ez-Zor

The US-backed terrorist organization PKK/YPG, which was forced to withdraw from Tel Rifaat after the Turkish-backed FSA attack, has launched an attack to drive the Syrian army out of 7 villages in Deir ez-Zor province, east of the Euphrates.

According to AA, the PKK/YPG launched an offensive against the Syrian army in the villages of Murrat, Hashsham, Mazlum, Tabiya, Husseiniye, Salihiyyah and Hatlah, and clashes are ongoing.

The Syrian army is known to be present in the area from Deir ez-Zor city center to al-Bukamal district near the Syrian-Iraqi border.

The PKK/YPG occupy almost all of Deir ez-Zor east of the Euphrates River, while the center of the province and other rural areas are under the control of the Syrian army.

4- US-backed FSA: Iraqi border in Deir ez-Zor

The U.S.-backed FSA launched an attack on the towns of al-Bukamal and Meyadin in Tanf, where US forces are stationed in the Syrian provinces of Homs and Deir ez-Zor.

The aim of these attacks is to sever Syria’s link with Iraq. Iranian groups supporting the Syrian army are concentrated in al-Bukamal, close to the Syrian-Iraqi border. This area is critical for the land link with Iranian-aligned forces in Iraq.

The Israeli army has been accused of repeatedly violating the ceasefire agreement with Lebanon. Recent incidents have led to the death of one individual and injuries to others, heightening tensions in the region.

A Lebanese citizen was killed in an Israeli airstrike on the Mercaiyoun region. The attack, carried out by an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), targeted a motorcycle.

In Hermel, northeast Lebanon, an Israeli attack on a Lebanese army bulldozer injured a soldier. The vehicle was engaged in fortification work when targeted.

The body of a Lebanese officer, reportedly killed by Israeli forces, was discovered in Naqoura. Contact with the officer had been lost on November 26, prompting an ongoing investigation.

Since the ceasefire came into effect on November 27, the Israeli army has been accused of at least 73 violations, resulting in two fatalities and six injuries. Alleged violations include house demolitions, artillery shelling, aerial bombardments by warplanes and UAVs, and surveillance drone flights.

U.S. and France express concern

The United States and France, key mediators in the ceasefire agreement, have criticized Israel for non-compliance:

According to Yedioth Ahronot, sources revealed that the U.S. administration warned Israel against violations, particularly the visible deployment of Israeli drones over Beirut. Amos Hochstein, a senior advisor to President Joe Biden, reportedly emphasized the need for restraint to ensure the ceasefire’s stability.

Citing 52 violations, French diplomatic sources accused Israel of bypassing proper channels to report alleged breaches by Hezbollah to the U.S.-led international monitoring body.

Israeli Foreign Minister Gideon Sa’ar denied the allegations, claiming that Israel had adhered to the terms of the agreement. Article 2 of the ceasefire explicitly prohibits Israeli military actions against civilian, military, or government targets in Lebanon. It also mandates reporting violations to the ceasefire monitoring body.

Threats to civilians

The Israeli military has issued warnings to residents of southern Lebanon, restricting their return to areas near the conflict zone.

Israeli army spokesperson Avichay Adraee prohibited civilians from traveling to more than sixty towns and villages, including Shebaa, al-Habariyeh, Mercaiyoun, and others.

Adraee warned: “Anyone moving south of this line will be held responsible.”

As the ceasefire remains fragile, international stakeholders have stressed the importance of avoiding further escalation. Both the U.S. and France continue to urge all parties to uphold the agreement, emphasizing the need for diplomacy over military action.